sociolinguistics and language teaching mckay pdf

A school divided: An ethnography of bilingual education in a Chinese community. Bridging the paradigm gap: Second language acquisition research and indigenized varieties of English. It may be true that "mixing" with English is frequent and that English is not used in all the domains that it would be in a linguistically restricted society, such as the United States, or for all users in a given society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. In D. Johnson &c D. H. Roen (Eds. TESOL Quarterly, 27(1), 33-56. Weinberg, M. (1990a). In this pattern, the first section, called the ki, begins an argument and is followed by the shoo, which develops the argument. The interests of microethnography, in sum, are not micro at all but are macro in their scope. Professor: Well, well, I'm I'm wanting to see. Startling may be too mild a word for the effect of this discovery on the practice and practitioners of English teaching. Recommendations from the New Zealand Department of Education (1988; cited by Cummins, 1989, p. 61) provide examples of ways in which schools can incorporate minority languages and thereby elevate the status of those languages in the eyes of their speakers. Pidgin and Creole languages: Selected essays by Hugo Schuchardt. An overview of issues in immersion education. In R. Venezky, D. Wagner, &C B. Ciliberti (Eds. Thus, the richly textured analyses of social situations, social interactions, participant roles, and statuses offered by interactional sociolinguistics all contribute to our understanding of the contextual presuppositions that help us use contextualization cues to draw situated inferences about what others say, mean, and do. (Eds. But we did not, perhaps, conceptualize those forms as different in kind; we still think of these native English speakers as Anglo-Saxon in some sense. the Pathan iterated, grinding his wordsfirstsoftly, then hard. An overview of pidgins and Creoles as linguistic phenomena, this volume provides a valuable discussion of theoretical controversies about the origin and development of pidgins and Creoles. In the first article of this collection, Gumperz (p. 12) points out that the anthropological and linguistic study of speakers of other languages has had a tremendous impact on our understanding of culture and cognition, by providing "empirical evidence for the contention that human cognition is significantly affected by historical forces.55 The discovery of different grammatical systems, including different phonemic (sound) and semantic (meaning) systems, showed that "what we perceive and retain in our mind is a function of our culturally determined predisposition to perceive and assimilate55 (Gumperz, 1982a, p. 12, emphasis added). Language planning, especially as it relates to literacy, is commonly seen as having a positive impact on the national economy in technological societies. In P. H. Nelde (Ed. References Auerbach, E. (1986). To support this principle is not to advocate a so-called quota system; rather, it is to acknowledge that it is always a good idea to include members of a target population when members of one group are attempting to educate or solve the problems of another. As experienced, it is no longer a future moment but a present one. Australia has attempted to promote foreign language instruction to improve communication with trading partners who speak Chinese, Indonesian, Japanese, and Korean (Kaplan, 1991). The concept of preference in conversational analysis. Jackson, P. W. (1992). Examples are provided from a variety of nations including Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the former Soviet Union. . Written Communication, 9, 501532. The other tongue: English across cultures (2nd ed.). Florine 4. The maintenance of both self and face is thus built into the fabric of social interaction (Goffman, 1967a, pp. Hinds (1990) maintains that the writing of many East Asian writers has what he calls a "delayed introduction of purpose" which has "the undesirable effect Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 436 Sandra Lee McKay of making the essay appear incoherent to the English-speaking reader, although the style does not have that effect on the native reader" (p. 99). This text provides an introduction to the field of sociolinguistics for second and foreign language teachers. Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 Speech acts 393 course completion task did not promote the turn-taking and negotiation strategies found in natural conversations. 89). McKay, S. (1993). Recently, Myers-Scotton (1993b) has proposed a comprehensive and integrated matrix language frame model which aims to address grammatical, psycholinguistic, and sociolinguistic considerations in code mixing. (See Wolfram & Fasold, 1974, for an elaboration of this distinction. ), Non-standard speech and the teaching of English. 3763). Individual knowledge of language, then, is not enough for a speaker to perform speech fluently. One implication of this view for LI and L2 language learners is that the ways in which contexts mix oral and literate language use will affect those learners5 use and development of language and literacy. (1983). Part 1 examines various definitions of literacy and culture; Part Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 442 Sandra Lee McKay 2 discusses the literacy practices of culturally diverse groups; Part 3 discusses the pedagogical implications of diverse literacy traditions. In lexis, the American or British reader will be struck by adamantly as a modifier of evasive, requiring some extension of the adverb's meaning, and by the use of pressurise (in its apparently intended sense) instead of pressure. indicated a lack of understanding, he could make substitutions for two words in his native Creole, known as Gullah, that moved his variety closer to my standard English. [Review of Reading Asian American literature: From necessity to extravagance, by Sau-ling Cynthia Wong, and Articulate silences: Hisaye Yamamoto, Maxine Hong Kingston, Joy Kogawa, by King-kok Cheung.] (Erickson, 1989, p. 5). Our discussion of linguistic realizations of forms of resistance to these dominant discursive practices may therefore suggest ways by which other kinds of linguistic minorities can challenge hegemonic discursive practices which disadvantage them. An example would be a direct imperative such as: "Shut the door!" High-status varieties are associated with the educated, who, through privilege, have access to schools and to the "national" literature canonized therein. (1988). 9780521616874 9780521851473 Sociolinguistics and language teaching McKay Sandra L Hornberger Nancy H 1996 0521484340 0521482054' 2 / 12 'THE RELEVANCE OF SOCIOLINGUISTICS FOR LANGUAGE TEACHING APRIL 16TH, 2019 - IN THIS PAPER THE AUTHOR PROVIDES A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF SOME OF THE Although no course of instruction could possibly furnish all the insights that a foreign language learner would need in order to successfully finetune each and every speech act utterance, there is some evidence that furnishing learners with selected insights regarding the comprehension and production of speech acts may provide them with valuable information that they would probably not acquire on their own. The concern for pattern has long been basic in anthropology (e.g., Benedict, 1934), with interpretations of underlying meaning dependent on the discovery and description of normative structure or design. I could not come because of problems and I tried to warn you by phone b u t . The problem is that, sociolinguistically, this phrase would be interpreted as rude and insulting, unless the student had an especially close relationship with the professor and the utterance was made in jest. 465485). Even if this child decides to use the system morphemes of English (which he, like most other children of his age, already understands), his written compositions may continue to reflect the oral rhetorical strategies of his home community and will be judged less than satisfactory by the teachers from the dominant culture who make up half the staff at his small school. (See, for example, Osterloh, 1986, for a discussion of the close identification of an author and a text in many Arabic-speaking cultures; Kachru & Nelson, this volume, for a more general overview of different cultural asssumptions about texts.) Berkeley: Berkeley Women and Language Group, Department of Linguistics, University of California at Berkeley. Corno, L., &c Kanfer, R. (1993). New York: Peter Lang. In the extreme, struggles that supposedly originated over language can lead to resistance, widespread interethnic conflict, and even civil war. Recently, some investigators have suggested dropping the term, since it can also be seen as ascribing a lower status to the people to which it refers. Word, 19, 273 309. It is because contextualization cues are learned through long periods of close, face-to-face contact that many people in modern, culturally diverse, socially heterogeneous societies are likely to interact without benefit of shared cues. (1991). To do this, it is helpful to consider the work of Walters (1992). In S. Blum-Kulka, J. House-Edmondson, &; G. Kasper (Eds. Rao, R. (1963). Oxford: Oxford University Press. If you recognize that you are hearing (or reading) English, then the language is intelligible to you, according to this technical definition of the term. The second and third vignettes, dated April 18 and 22, 1989 and October 5, 1989, draw from research carried out beginning in 1987 in school and community settings of Philadelphia. For all that it sounds egalitarian and inclusive, it continues, for the sorts of reasons outlined, to be oppressive and divisive. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Swann, 1993, pp. One study which tends to corroborate Paulston5s speculation relating the "need55 to change interaction style with learners of lower social prestige involved an analysis of nonverbal behavior in French and English storytelling by Canadian bilingual children who were either Francophone or Anglophone (Von Raffler Engle, 1972). In the longitudinal study of the ESL class mentioned earlier, for instance, analysis at this level made it possible to determine the relative frequency of different communicative functions for students in different events and across time (e.g., warnings and threats to other students declined significantly, and requests for clarification increased) and to compare the linguistic form that was selected by event across time for each type of act (e.g., from gestures and nonspeech sound used for warnings and threats at the beginning of the year, to holistic routines, to increasing syntactic complexity in the second language). The output hypothesis: Just speaking and writing aren't enough. Drew, P., & Wooton, A. (1983). In so doing, we will review and build on what has been said in the foregoing chapters. In F. Coulmas (Ed. Ways of doing things, ways of talking, beliefs, values, power relations in short, practices emerge in the course of this mutual endeavour55 (p. 464). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation. . Bridging the paradigm gap: Second language acquisition theories and indigenized varieties of English. Argument as status assertion: Contextual variations in children's disputes. 1 34). THE PERCEPTION OF SPEECH ACTS With regard to the perception of speech acts, Benander (1990) underscored the value of direct interview data as a complement for data obtained through discourse completion tasks. In undertaking an ethnographic investigation of these communities, Reder found that, in the Eskimo community since English literacy had been imposed from the outside, the change to English literacy was nearly complete. 296-311). Los Angeles: Bilingual Education Services. In fact, social practices are relegated to a position of secondary importance, as the following passage illustrates: In individual cases knowledge of the English language was made a prerequisite for ordinary vocational positions which were in no way connected with politics. For example, if we work in a company where information about our family life and feelings is officially declared to be irrelevant, it may be quite appropriate or quite inappropriate to reveal to a supervisor that one's brother died recently. In J. Wolfson, N. (1989). The orientation of each group toward school, and the community around the school, reflects the group's sense of how best to prepare for their lives after high school (Eckert, 1988, pp. SOCIOLINGUISTICS AS SUBJECT Kinds of relationship between language and society (Grimshaw, 1971) 1. language determines society 2. sociocultural determines language 3. co-variance between social facts and language 4. language and society is determined by other factors such as culture, abstract structure or biological nature 11. ), Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 14, 240-253. Chapter 4 deals with the sociolinguistic behavior of English speakers and, especially, with forms of address, apologies, requests, disapproval, refusals, the expression of gratitude, and so forth. (1977, p. 51) Again, however, he downplays more systematic institutional racism and language discrimination, as the following indicates: There were only isolated instances of an oppressive state policy aiming at the elimination of non-English languages. This is somewhat dated now, and may be difficult to find, but it is an excellent introduction to sociolinguistics and vernacular dialects for teachers, with useful suggestions for doing original research in the classroom. Fishman (1981) observes that in the United States, policies to promote language maintenance have not been considered (by powerful elites) in the public's (i.e., the dominant group's) interest. Paper presented at the Second Language Research Forum, University of Southern California, Los Angeles. Results generally indicated that respondents perceived the cognitive and affective traits of the speakers differently depending on which language was spoken, even though, in the original stimulus tapes, all the speakers were bilinguals using each of their languages in different speech samples; thus the variation in response was interpreted as a result of respondents' own attitudes about these two languages rather than any genuine difference in the traits of the speakers, who were the same individuals. Haugen's approach here is to view language planning as a largely technocratic process concerned with systematizing and cultivating a standardized language code in an effort to solve communication problems. New York: Plenum. . As noted in the earlier discussion, this utterance positioned the speaker in relation to conflicting norms about what blacks must do if they "are to get along in a White dominated world.55 Gumperz also found that people less familiar with ways of speaking in the black community interpreted "Ahma git me a gig!55 quite differently. The second is functional engagement, in which an individual supplies knowledge or expertise necessary for the enactment of the literacy practice. Accordingly, let us turn to a more detailed look at the research of ethnographic microanalysis, with emphasis on topics that have special relevance for language teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press. Doctoral dissertation. Rosslyn, VA: National Clearinghouse on Bilingual Education. Introduction. they Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 Literacy and literacies 437 still use language in ways which are subject to social conventions. Understanding the construction of social identity in terms of an index leads one to conclude that language is a form of continuing social activity capable of modification and development (Williams, 1977, p. 39). (Eds.). Both code switching and the use of vernacular varieties have often been regarded negatively by teachers (see Sridhar, this volume). (1959). She then roomed alone in Lampa, about 35 to 40 kilometers away, in order to attend the colegio [high school] there, the closest colegio to her home. . Leacock, E. (1969). New York: John Wiley. The first is that when we speak of accents (as distinct from varieties or dialects), we are referring to features of pronunciation alone the phones, or individual sound segments in a word, as well as suprasegmental features like accent, tempo, and intonation. What makes grunts, sighs, and nonreferential word utterances such as "Well. In Michael B. Montgomery &c Guy Bailey (Eds. World Englishes, 8(2), 201-214. Literacy for empowerment: The role of parents in children's education. Simply put, diglossia occurs across domain boundaries, and code switching occurs within domains. [Series on applied linguistics and language study.] Third, because the methodology and analysis for studying attitudes and motivation have been derived mainly from the discipline of experimental psychology and have been used largely to build models of language acquisition, the classroom is treated generically; that is, a differentiated picture of the classroom processes and interactions that might shape an individual's access to the language studied is not available. In this example, clean shaven is not just an assertion of good grooming habits; it is included in the advertisement to indicate that the prospective bridegroom is not a traditional Sikh. Other gender differences were found with respect to seriousness of the offense, status difference, social distance, and frequency of acceptance of apologies by the offended party. The adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Reports on the kinds of dialectal features found in native American communities also indicate that some features such as freely variable plural markers (e.g., "Some plywoods blew out of my pickup," "I have lots of friend") or variable verb agreement ("My parents wants you to go," "My favorite things is my friends and my hobbies"; all examples from Beck & Foster, 1989) are common in the English of more traditional people with relatively less exposure to education. Should they take the side of the health care provider or of the patient? ), Speech acts across cultures. In general, the work of ethnographic microanalysis suggests that, because communication style and social identity are so locally situated and fluid, it is good advice for students to study their own communicative experience reflectively rather than to learn generalizations about the cultural speaking style of ethnic others (see the discussion in Erickson & Shultz, 1982, pp. Claremont, CA: Institute for Education in Transformation, the Claremont Graduate School. For instance (to give a somewhat sexist example), to interpret the but in the English statement "Bill's a secretary, but he's a man at heart" requires knowledge that men do not typically work as secretaries in U.S. society. She also added eight categories: societal justification, a request for an explanation, blame, resignation, conciliation, persuasion, indirect disagreement, and a request for agreement. 221240). Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 1 1 The ethnography of communication Muriel Saville-Troike Dell Hymes's call for an ethnography of speaking (1962; later to become more broadly the ethnography of communication) resulted in the advent of a distinctive new subdiscipline, derived from anthropology and linguistics, which has revolutionized the study of the interpenetration of language and culture. Bilingualism is a worldwide phenomenon. Because they all live in the same village, most members are bilingual or trilingual. Such sharing consists of knowledge of at least one form of speech and knowledge also of its patterns of use. Jones-Jackson, Patricia (1987). In this study, 103 nonnative and 63 native speakers of American English were asked to interpret the messages contained in twelve vignettes involving apologies, requests, refusals, and complaints. Typically, terms exist in the language by which to label situations, such as (in English) a church service, a trial, a cocktail party, or a class in school. Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages. In T. Skutnabb-Kangas &c J. Cummins (Eds. As noted earlier in this chapter, language policies can either be implicit or explicit. As the preceding discussion reveals, the languages of a multilingual community are differentially evaluated on the basis of the habitual associations between the languages and the domains of their use. ), Language and social identity (pp. Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 182 John R. Rickford variety, and standard English, as exemplified in these brief excerpts (Simpkins & Simpkins, 1981, p. 232): 6. Masica, C. P. (1976). Rowley, MA: Newbury House. She found that children used three criteria: [T]he physical characteristics that distinguish Puerto Ricans and other Latin Americans from North Americans, the age-related classification that assumes infants and the elderly speak only Spanish and all others know English, and the gender-related patterns that link women with speaking Spanish and men with speaking English, (p. 172) Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 256 Rebecca Freeman and Bonnie McElhinny Zentella notes that girls have more exposure to and opportunities to use Spanish than boys because of their greater restriction to the house and/or their mothers, play and friendship with other females, infant caretaking, attendance at Spanish-language religious services, and inclusion in female discussions and activities such as cooking, cleaning, and watching the novela (1987, p. 173). In J. J. Gumperz (Anwar Dil, Ed.). . Conclusion Thanks to the focused linguistic research of the past several decades, these languages, formerly considered "marginal," are now far better understood by linguists. Qualification (agreeing) 6. It was influenced strongly by Gregory Bateson and Margaret Mead and developed through interdisciplinary collaboration among anthropologists, linguists, and psychiatrists (see Kendon, 1990, for discussion). Fairclough, N. (1989). Urbana: University of Illinois. Along similar lines, Wolfson (1989, p. 31) argues that "the acquisition of sociolinguistic rules can be greatly facilitated by teachers who have the necessary information at their command and who have the sensitivity to use their knowledge in order to guide students and help them to interpret values and patterns which they would otherwise have difficulty in interpreting." Wolfram, W., & Fasold, R. W. (1974). Instructional obstacles come about not because students have different types of motivation but because some students are relatively less motivated by any combination of integrative, instrumental, or other orientations. They were also asked to record such basic ethnographic information as location of the encounter, identity of interlocutors, and their relationships (if known). Champaign, IL: National Council of Teachers of English, by special arrangement with the Center for Applied Linguistics. LePage, R. B. Finally, the available studies on the teaching of speech act behavior to nonnative speakers will be reviewed, and the pedagogical implications of the findings to date will be described. To their data from Philadelphia, Bailey and Maynor (1987) added data from the Brazos Valley, Texas, which suggested that the AAVE of urban children had become more different from that of older African-Americans and from white vernaculars. Corson, 1989; Ingram, 1990, 1991). Central to fulfilling this task is an understanding of the relationship between language and society, for it is the social context that both provides the conditions for linguistic diversity and reinforces the conventions necessary to maintain linguistic standards. Although Fairclough illustrates how both spoken and written texts reflect the social order, here written texts will be discussed. If that is so, then it is also true that the educational choices we make can have a direct impact on the opportunities, participation, and potential contributions of language and minority learners. Figure 8 (from Wolfram, Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 164 John R. Rickford l\l (beet) /lJ /u/(boot) bit ( ) \ /e/ bait < ) /u/ (put) /o/(boat) /e/(bet) ^ /A/(but) / / (bat) ^ /o/ (bought) ^ ^ /a/ (father) * Figure 8. Using data from multilingual communities in Africa (mostly Kenya), Myers-Scotton demonstrates that bilingual and multilingual speakers have an additional style at their command which they use only with other bilinguals who share the same codes. Or a teacher might be under the mistaken impression that a student who reads John walks home as John walk home had failed to see and register the semantic significance of the third present -5 suffix; the student, however, might have read and understood it perfectly but converted the sentence to the regularities of her native variety of African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) in reproducing it for her teacher. New York: Monthly Review Press. Many also believe that students should be assisted in developing bidialectal competence in AAVE and standard English.18 Linguists have consistently suggested that the goal of being competent in AAVE and Standard English would be better achieved if the structural, rhetorical, and expressive characteristics of African-American vernacular language were taken into account. Sociolinguistics and Language Education. There is no direct evidence for this supposition, but it might be assumed that the difficulty native speakers of a stigmatized dialect have had with instruction in a standard version of a language (e.g., Chicanos in high school Spanish classes) is due in part to resistance that is sparked by the teacher's not treating the students' native language with the interest that dignifies and respects. In a small-scale instructional study, a group of three intermediate ESL students received 70 minutes of training in refusal strategies in a conversation class (which the researchers admit may have been too little), and three others just received conversation on getting to know Americans (King & Silver, 1993). Multicultural classrooms present special challenges in this regard: lack of student involvement in lessons in classrooms in which students5 cultures differ from that of the teacher (or differ among themselves) may be due to a lack of shared social and cultural knowledge. 1936). World Englishes, 8(3), 4 3 3 439. Kachru, 1981], a richer theory incorporating the notions of speech act, conversational analysis, sociolinguistics, and ethnography of communication is needed to study the illocutionary force and perlocutionary effect of locutionary acts" (p. 304). Baltimore, MD: University Park Press. IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING LANGUAGE ARTS TO SPEAKERS OF AAVE Reading, the subject which parents in Hoover's study (1978, p. 82) ranked as the most important item in the elementary school curriculum, was the first subject to attract the interest of sociolinguists working on AAVE. Wiley argues that the promotion of a standard variety through the schools can be seen as a divisive force, for not all groups are provided equal access to acquiring it. , pp champaign, IL: National Council of teachers of English to Speakers of other languages occurs within.! A direct imperative such as: `` Shut the door! order, here written texts be. Field of sociolinguistics for Second and foreign language teachers implicit or explicit and I tried to warn by. C D. H. Roen ( Eds of both self and face is thus into! Berkeley: Berkeley Women and language Group, Department of Linguistics, University of California at Berkeley order here. For an elaboration of this distinction language research Forum, University of Southern California Los... ; Ingram, 1990, 1991 ) cultures ( 2nd ed....., & sociolinguistics and language teaching mckay pdf Kanfer, R. W. ( 1974 ), CA: for! Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 literacy and literacies 437 still use language ways. Direct imperative such as: `` Shut the door! varieties have often been regarded negatively by teachers ( Wolfram. W. ( 1974 ) to Speakers of other languages, widespread interethnic conflict and! In T. Skutnabb-Kangas & c J. Cummins ( Eds the interests of,... And written texts will be discussed chapter, language policies can either be implicit or explicit education! Language can lead to resistance, widespread interethnic conflict, and code switching within... 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